Group 3
Sexual Assault on the College Campus
The role of male peer support
Chapter 1: Sexual Assault on North American College Campuses
•The 2 purposes of this book:
–Introduce the topic of sexual assault on campuses
–Discuss theoretical models of male peer support
Chapter 1: Campus Crime
•Biased laws and law enforcement
•Discrepancies in the definition of crime
•The legacy of ignoring college crime
–The attitudes of college administrators help to provide immunity to college offenders.
–The rational choice theory
•Proposes that criminals are able to rationally weigh the benefits and risks of committing a crime.
•Benefits of rape outweigh the costs, which are often times minimal.
What is Sexual Assault?
•Types
–Sexual contact: Unwanted sex play (I.E. fondling, petting, kissing) arising from verbal pressure, misuse of authority or strength, threats of harm, or actual physical force.
–Sexual coercion: Unwanted sexual intercourse arising from verbal pressure, misuse of authority or strength, threats of harm, or actual physical force.
–Attempted rape: Attempting unwanted sexual intercourse arising from the use of, or threats of force or the use of drugs or alcohol.
What is Rape?
Rape: Unwanted sexual intercourse arising from the use of or threats of force and other unwanted sex acts (I.E. anal or oral intercourse or penetration by objects other than penis).
The extent of sexual assault on U.S. college campuses
•According to the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss et al., 1987),
–15% of women reported that their most serious sexual victimization since the age of 14 had been complete rape.
–12% reported that the most serious victimization during the same period was attempted, but uncompleted, sexual intercourse.
–14.4% experienced sexual contact.
–11.9% reported having been victimized by sexual coercion.
Why aren’t victims taken seriously on college campuses?
•Oftentimes aquaintance rape gets dismissed because:
-"Boys will be boys."
-"She was asking for it."
•Rape incidents aren’t reported enough because:
- Victims are afraid, ashamed, embarrassed
•College men and women have uncertain definitions of rape.
Chapter 2: Theories of Male Peer Support of Sexual Assault
•Most theories presented here are based on the Social Support Theory which states:
–A person’s social integration may have a strong influence on his/her behavior.
–The development of an individual’s mind and self is based on social exchanges with various people.
–The social integration and the quality of interactions within social networks have significant individual and social consequences.
Male Peer Support Theory (DeKeseredy 1990)
•Male Peer Support Theory
•2 components
-Attachments: Abusive men attach to other abusive men; men express concern that they maintain their image for other men.
- Resources: One’s social support group offers verbal and emotional support for engaging in abuse of women. Abuse may be encouraged and legitimized.
Kanin’s Reference Group Theory
•Some men come to college with a history of sexual aggression or the desire to engage in sexual aggression.
•Sexually aggressive college men selectively seek out male friends who support and sustain sexually exploitative behavior.
•Men who are interested in exploiting women tend to seek our fraternities that have a reputation for such behavior. (Example: frat song)
Kanin’s Reference Group Theory Evaluation
•Data does not support the notion that on-campus men’s groups, such as fraternities, are the cause of sexual forms of women abuse. Rather, many male undergraduates come to college fully prepared to abuse women.
•Theory does not specify the ways in which individuals locate those who are like themselves.
•Kanin does not explain the types of pressure peers place on their friends to have sex.
The Standards of Gratification Thesis (Bowker, 1993)
•The social-psychological process in which the standards of gratification is developed:
–Through childhood exposure to their mothers being dominated by their fathers. They learn that both women and children are subordinate to men.
–His study found that the more contact there was between wife-beaters and their male friends, the more frequent and severe the beatings of their wives would be.
The Standards of Gratification Thesis Evaluation
•No empirical support
•Speculative
•Used role of male peer support as a constant instead of a variable.
•Over-generalizes the extent of male peer support.
Sanday’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Gang-Rape
•Fraternity rituals are designed to maximize male bonding and give men confidence to take on the new college environment.
–The rituals help the male child break away from his mother.
–The fraternities are mechanisms to legitimize male social dominance.
–Fraternity brothers’ constant concern about engaging in heterosexual intercourse is a mask for their deep fear and fascination with homosexuality.
–It is argued that group sex usually with an unconscious woman allows men to satisfy their desires for one another at the victim’s expense.
Sanday’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Gang-Rape Evaluation
•No empirical evidence.
•Some support for broader notions that all male organizations are related to sexual abuse of women. It isn’t only fraternities; also includes all-male athletic activities and clubs whose members engage in masculine behaviors.
Male Peer Support Models
•Relationship stress is the key component of Male Peer Support Model.
•Men experience various types of stress in intimate heterosexual relationships.
•Some men turn to other males for advice, guidance, and social support.
•Finding: For men with high levels of "dating-life event stress," social ties with abusive peers are strongly related to women abuse.
Modified Male Peer Support Model
•Adds 4 important factors to the original Male Peer Support Model
–The ideologies of familial and courtship patriarchy.
–Alcohol consumption.
–Membership in a formal social group (I.E. fraternities)
–Absence of deterrence.
Modified Male Peer Support Model Evaluation
•Each component has been empirically tested, however, there have not been empirical tests performed on the model as a whole.
Chapter 3: Growing Up in a Rape-Supportive Culture
•A Male Dominant Society
–Our society is characterized by different levels of a patriarchy, a sexual system of power in which the male possesses superior power and economic privilege.
–Societal Patriarchy: a system of more broad, overall forces within American society that maintain these dominant male patterns.
–Familial Patriarchy: a system that maintains male dominance in the domestic context.
Chapter 3: Growing Up in a Rape-Supportive Culture
•Biological Factors
–Male dominance as an evolutionary trait—male sexual control is a process that helps to spread the genes of aggressive men.
–Physical differences in brain structure, which are claimed to cause sex differences.
•Cultural Factors
–Traditional gender role expectations are taught to both boys and girls at a very early age.
–Concept of masculinity.
–Concept of hegemonic masculinity.
Chapter 3: Growing Up in a Rape-Supportive Culture
•Basic concepts of Hegemonic Masculinity
–Men are supposed to:
•Avoid all things feminine
•Severely restrict their emotions
•Show toughness and aggression
•Exhibit self-reliance
•Strive for achievement and success
•Exhibit non-relational attitudes about sexuality
•Actively engage in homophobia
Chapter 3: Growing Up in a Rape-Supportive Culture
•Rape Myths
–Belief systems characterized by "prejudicial, stereotype, false beliefs about rape, rape victims, and rapists" (Burt 1980).
•"women secretly wish to be raped and fantasize about rough sex."
•"rape can only be committed by strangers."
•"the rape of a sexually active woman is not really rape."
•"she was asking for it by wearing that short skirt."
•"all women are liars."
–Holders of these myths have a very narrow definition of rape and these people may not necessarily be rapists.
Chapter 3: Growing Up in a Rape-Supportive Culture
•Objectification
–Motive sharing: many, or most men use language justifying rape.
–Depersonalized body parts (Tits and Ass).
–Use of derogatory humor (I.E. the "boob mug.")
–Pornography
•Lies about women.
•Shows that women’s only important pleasure lies in pleasing men, etc.
Chapter 3: Growing Up in a Rape-Supportive Culture
•Hidden Victims
–Why don’t some women report their victimization?
•Self-blame.
•Double rape: Re-victimization by the judicial system.
•Unclear definitions of rape.
•Not acknowledging that their experience was actual rape, instead saying it was an "awful date."
Chapter 4: Factors Associated with Male Peer Support for Sexual Assault on Campus
•Alcohol
–Alcohol Abuse is a major problem on college campuses with increasing use in recent years, especially for women.
–Alcohol factored into 66% of date rapes (Kanin 1984).
–Women who were raped after drinking alcohol were not taken as seriously as those who were raped and had not been drinking (Norris & Cubbins 1992).
–Etc…
Chapter 4: Factors Associated with Male Peer Support for Sexual Assault on Campus
•Male Support-Group Membership (I.E. fraternities and sports groups)
–Group Secrecy
–Narrow concept of masculinity
–Value of group loyalty
–The idea that women are appropriate targets for sexual attack
Chapter 5: Prevention and Policy Implications
•Target Hardening: prevention through opportunity reduction
–Security cameras
–Security guards
–Student escorts/patrols
•Evaluation
•Women are most likely assaulted in private places vs public ones.
•Creates an exaggerated fear of male strangers and public places.
•Gives a false sense of security.
Chapter 5: Prevention and Policy Implications
•Educational Campaigns
–Without them, students will learn their "facts" from gossip or uniformed media.
•Evaluation
•By the time people reach college, it may be too late to change their attitudes, values, and behaviors.
•Doesn’t work unless there is official sponsorship from school administration.
Chapter 5: Prevention and Policy Implications
•Other Strategies
–Alcohol Policies (The ban of alcohol from dorms and campus apartments)
–Codes of Conduct (Establishing a written protocol for handling sexual assault cases)
–Disciplinary procedures (Standardization of penalties for sexual assault perpetrators)
•These policies are necessary, but not sufficient to prevent sexual crimes from occurring. It would take major societal and attitudinal changes to create a better, safer environment for women on college campuses.